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ANESTHETIC PHARMACOLOGY

Transcutaneous Blood Gas CO₂ Monitoring of Induced Ventilatory Depression in Mice

Peyman Sahbaie, MD^*, Shohreh Madanlou, MD^*, Parham Gharagozlou, MD^*, J. David Clark, MD, PhD, Jelveh Lameh, PhD^*, and Timothy M. Delorey, PhD^*

From the *Molecular Research Institute, Mountain View, California; VA Palo Alto Health Care System and Stanford University Department of Anesthesiology, Palo Alto, California.

Address correspondence and reprint requests to Timothy M. Delorey, PhD, Molecular Research Institute, 2495 Old Middlefield Way, Mountain View, CA 94043. Address e-mail to tim{at}molres.org.

	Abstract

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We assessed a simple, noninvasive method of monitoring transcutaneous partial pressure of CO₂ (Ptcco₂) in mice to determine whether it would provide an accurate and reproducible method to assess ventilatory depression in mice. To this end, Ptcco₂ and Paco₂ (partial pressure of arterial CO₂) measurements were performed on isoflurane-anesthetized male C57Bl/6 mice breathing differing percentages of CO₂ or fentanyl, a known ventilatory depressive drug. All doses of fentanyl produced a sharp increase in Ptcco₂ values within 20 min with difference in Ptcco₂ values between saline and all fentanyl groups being statistically significant (P < 0.0001). A good correlation between Paco₂ and Ptcco₂ values was established (r² = 0.91). A Bland-Altman analysis likewise found that Ptcco₂ measurements in the mice reliably and accurately reflected their Paco₂ values. Therefore, under controlled conditions, Ptcco₂ measurements were found to reliably reflect Paco₂ values in mice. Consequently, the Ptcco₂ method can be used as a means to rapidly and quantitatively assess the ventilatory depressive properties of a wide spectrum of drugs, under varying conditions in numerous mouse models.

	Introduction

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A variety of methods have been used to study ventilatory depression in humans, including Pao₂ and Paco₂ serial blood gas analysis (SBGA), pulse oximeter and capnometer monitoring (1), end-tidal carbon dioxide (CO₂) measurements with ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to CO₂ re-breathing (2), and continuous respiratory inductance plethysmography with SBGA (3). However, these methods transfer poorly to the study of ventilatory depression in rodent models. For example, Paco₂ SBGA in rodents is a cumbersome, invasive technique requiring sophisticated surgical maneuvers. Furthermore, the pain and volume (blood) loss associated with the surgery affects the accuracy of the Paco₂ measurements. An alternative means of obtaining arterial blood samples in rodents is via cardiac puncture but, like the SBGA method, lacks the ability to continuously monitor data, thereby, potentially missing transient changes. The above reasons underscore the appeal of using a noninvasive CO₂ monitoring procedure for the study of induced ventilatory depression in mice. This study investigates the reliability and accuracy of assessing ventilatory depression in mice by noninvasive transcutaneous CO₂ (Ptcco₂) monitoring. The correlation between Ptcco₂ and Paco₂ measurements has been found to be high in both rats (4) and humans (5). However, previous Ptcco₂ measurements in rodents have been limited to a single rat study (4). As the mouse is the rodent of choice for transgenic manipulations, we sought to expand on the rat study by validating the Ptcco₂ method in the assessment of ventilatory depression in mice. Validating a simple, noninvasive method of assessing ventilatory depression in mice would go a long way towards providing a means to rapidly obtain data on numerous substances (clinically approved and experimental), under a variety of conditions and in any one of the vast number of transgenic mice that have been generated. To validate this method, we chose to induce ventilatory depression in mice by two separate means, increasing the CO₂ levels in the air the mice breathed and through the administration of the opioid fentanyl. Ptcco₂ and Paco₂ measurements were obtained from these mice and the resulting data were correlated and subjected to Bland-Altman analysis.

	METHODS

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Male 12- to 20-wk-old C57Bl/6 mice (Charles Rivers Hollister, CA.) were housed in groups of 8 on a 12/12-h light/dark cycle under controlled temperature with food and water provided ad libitum. All animal protocols used in this study conform to guidelines determined by the National Institutes of Health Office for Protection from Research Risks and were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System.

Fentanyl was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO), dissolved in 0.9% saline as vehicle, and administered by intraperitoneal (IP) injection. Isoflurane (AErrane) was obtained from Henry Schein Inc. (Melville, NY).

We used a transcutaneous blood gases monitor and calibrator (Model 860; TCO₂ M Novametrix Medical Systems Inc., Wallingford, CT.) with a CO₂ Novadisc Sensor Kit (Model 6752-00) and NovaCom software. Before each experiment the probe was subjected to a two-point calibration using 5% and 10% CO₂ gas standards. Calibration and measurements were performed using a constant probe temperature of 44°C. The CO₂ display reading, which is by default set to reflect the metabolic factor for Ptcco₂ in humans, was turned off. The readings were then corrected to 37°C by using the equation: Pco₂ (37°C) = Pco₂ (machine value) x exp(0.045[37°C–44°C]). The temperature correction factor of 4.5% per degree C was applied to account for the difference between probe and the blood gas analyzer (37°C) temperature.

Probe site preparation was performed on anesthetized mice 1 day before the experiment by shaving a 1 square inch area on the mouse’s abdomen with an electrical hair clipper. The following day mice were anesthetized (1.5% isoflurane in 2 L/min of O₂) inside a Plexiglas box for 18–22 min to induce a stable anesthesia (anesthesia stabilization time) and transferred to a nose cone delivering 1.0% isoflurane in 2 L/min O₂. Sensor contact gel was placed on the probe and fixed to the abdominal skin with adhesive ring. Throughout the experiment a stable flow of the anesthetic mixture was maintained using an Airway Gas Monitor (Model 254; Datex Instrument Corp., Helsinki, Finland) and the body temperatures of mice were maintained at 36.5°C–37.5°C using an electric heating pad. The above protocol was used in all experiments.

Arterial blood samples (0.3–0.5 mL) were collected via intracardiac puncture aimed at the left ventricle of anesthetized mice using heparinized syringes. Mice were euthanized after sample collection by placement into a CO₂ inhalation chamber. Samples were immediately stored on ice and analyzed within 5 min. Paco₂ was determined using i-STAT Analyzer System (Abbot, East Windsor, NJ) with temperature set at 37°C. Analyzer performance was verified daily and before each sample analysis. The disposable EG₇₊ cartridges were verified for calibration routinely.

Experiment 1
As there has been no previous study of transcutaneous blood gas monitoring in mice, these experiments were performed to determine the time required to achieve stable Ptcco₂ baseline values under anesthesia (anesthesia adaptation), thereby identifying the optimal time for the introduction of the CO₂ gas mixture or opiate administration. A stable Ptcco₂ baseline value was characterized as steady baseline Ptcco₂ value (±2 mm Hg) within a 3-min interval. A group of 6 mice were tested without drug or vehicle to evaluate the average time required for anesthesia adaptation. Next, another group of 6 mice were given IP injections of saline vehicle subsequent to the anesthesia adaptation time and monitored for 100–110 min to determine the control values and the anesthetic (isoflurane) effect on the Ptcco_2. Preinjection baseline Ptcco₂ values acquired on each mouse were subtracted from their own postinjection values to assess the amount of Ptcco₂ increase. Measurements were automatically collected by computer interface every 8 s, averaged into 32-s epochs, and graphed against time for comparison purposes. The same data management was used in all subsequent experiments.

Experiment 2
To assure correlation between Paco₂ and Ptcco₂, 20 mice were randomly assigned to 3 groups A (no CO₂), B (1.25% CO₂), or C (2.5% CO₂). All groups received 1.0% isoflurane in 2 L/min of 100% O₂. After each mouse achieved a stable Ptcco₂ baseline value, CO₂ was supplemented for 19–21 min and blood samples collected.

Experiment 3
(A) Naïve mice were randomly assigned into 3 groups of 6 with each mouse receiving a single IP injection of fentanyl (0.3, 0.5, or 1.0 mg/kg) after achieving a stable Ptcco₂ baseline. Fentanyl doses used in this study were derived from ED₅₀ determinations for analgesia in the tail flick assay done in-house and from the literature (6). Postinjection monitoring of Ptcco₂ was performed for 70–100 min. The relationship between the increase in Ptcco₂ and the dose of fentanyl was assessed.

(B) To evaluate the reproducibility of the peak increase in Ptcco₂ values, 3 mice were randomly chosen from the 1.0 mg/kg fentanyl dose group for repeat measurements. Seven days after initial testing, the mice were again given the original dose of 1.0 mg/kg fentanyl and evaluated for peak increase in Ptcco₂.

(C) The correlation between Paco₂ and Ptcco₂ measurements in drug-induced ventilatory depression was performed using 3 randomly chosen mice injected with fentanyl 1.0 mg/kg. These data were compared with the correlations previously established in Experiment 2 using CO₂ inhalation. Arterial samples were obtained 20 min postinjection.

Results of Experiments 1 and 3A-B were subjected to repeated-measure one-way analysis of variance with post hoc Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test using Prism 3.0 (GraphPad, San Diego, CA). The area under the curve for experiments 3A-B was calculated by the trapezoid rule method (7). A linear regression equation was estimated from the Ptcco₂ and Paco₂ measurements in Experiment 2. This model was applied to the measured Ptcco₂ values to obtain the derived Paco₂ values. Measured and derived Paco₂ values were compared using the Bland-Altman plot and the magnitude of error was determined by calculating the standard deviation of the residuals (8).

	RESULTS

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Experiment 1
The anesthesia adaptation time required for each mouse was determined to be 35–75 min. The probe response time was found to be 30–45 s on contact in mice with the total duration of experiments being 165–190 min. The no-injection group achieved a maximum increase in Ptcco₂ (mean ± sd) of 2.63 ± 2.66 mm Hg, whereas the saline-injected group displayed a maximal increase of 0.49 ± 2.74 mm Hg above baseline at the 20-min time point. There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups throughout the duration of the experiment.

Experiment 2
All groups (A = 100% O₂, B = 100% O₂ with 1.25% CO₂, C = 100% O₂ with 2.50% CO₂) reached stable Ptcco₂ baseline values within 46–76 min. Group A had arterial blood drawn upon stabilization while groups B and C received the O₂/CO₂ mixture for 19–24 min before sampling. A good correlation between the Ptcco₂ and Paco₂ values was observed for mice from each group (A: Ptcco₂ = [1.64 x Paco₂] + 6.09; r² = 0.89; B: Ptcco₂ = [1.42 x Paco₂] + 13.97; r² = 0.93; C: Ptcco₂ = [1.48 x Paco₂] + 16.85; r² = 0.86) with an overall correlation for all groups of 0.91 (Fig. 1). In view of the strength of this correlation (r² = 0.91), a simple linear transformation was considered adequate to calculate the derived Paco₂ values. To demonstrate that the differences between values obtained using the two methods remained relatively constant over the range of values a Bland-Altman analysis was performed. Bias and limits of agreement between measured and derived Paco₂ values were 0.67 mm Hg and 5.68 to –4.34 mm Hg respectively (sd of bias = 2.56). The sd of the residuals (S_y.x) from the regression analysis was 2.63 mm Hg, suggesting a small magnitude of error between the transcutaneous and arterial Pco₂ measurements.

View larger version (14K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Correlation between Paco2 (Arterial Pco2) and Ptcco2 (transcutaneous Pco2) values. Mice (n = 20) were given different concentrations of inspired (FI) O2 and CO2 (A: 100% Fio2; 0.0% Fico2; B: 100% Fio2; 1.25% Fico2; C: 100% Fio2; 2.5% Fico2). Arterial blood samples and transcutaneous measurements were obtained simultaneously. The correlative relationship derived from this plot is reflected in the regression line described by the formula Ptcco2 = [1.68 x Paco2] + 4.12, (r2 = 0.91) with 95% confidence and prediction bands.

Experiment 3
(A) Fentanyl treatment: Mice used in this experiment reached baseline Ptcco₂ values of 56.33 ± 6.70 mm Hg (mean ± sd) within 32–67 min of probe contact, with the total duration of these experiments lasting between 72–107 min. Different doses of fentanyl were used to assess a range of Ptcco₂ responses. The 0.3 mg/kg dose produced a peak Ptcco₂ response of 6.72 ± 5.05 mm Hg above baseline within 20 min; the 0.5 mg/kg and 1.0 mg/kg dose produced a peak Ptcco₂ response of 15.95 ± 9.06 mm Hg and 16.18 ± 13.96 mm Hg above baseline within 20 min respectively (Fig. 2). Post hoc comparisons for each time point revealed statistically significant differences between the control and fentanyl groups (P < 0.001), as well as between the 0.3 mg/kg group and either of the 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg fentanyl groups (P < 0.001). Further comparison of the area under the curves revealed statistically significant differences in overall group effects of treatment between the fentanyl groups and saline (F_(3,30) = 20.45, P < 0.0001). Post hoc analysis found the differences between the 0.3 mg/kg fentanyl group and either of the 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg groups to be statistically different (P < 0.01). However, the difference between the 0.5 mg/kg and 1.0 mg/kg fentanyl groups was not statistically significant.

View larger version (25K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Comparison of the mean (±sem) difference in Ptcco2 (transcutaneous Pco2) values from baseline for saline and fentanyl (0.3, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg) treated mice over time. Preinjection baseline Ptcco2 values were subtracted from their own postinjection values to assess the amount of Ptcco2 increase. A stable Ptcco2 baseline value was characterized as steady Ptcco2 baseline values (±2 mm Hg) within a 3-min interval.

(B) Three of the mice from the fentanyl 1.0 mg/kg dose group were retested 7–10 days later to assess within-subject reproducibility. The rapid increase to a peak Ptcco₂ response again occurred within 20 min. The original mean ± sd response was 15.45 ± 0.69 mm Hg and the retested values were 16.68 ± 0.83 mm Hg above baseline. There was no significant difference between initial and retested values throughout the experiment. Further comparison of the area under the curves showed no statistically significant difference between original [976.7 (mm Hg)min] and retested [940.0 (mm Hg)min] values for the total duration of the experiment.

(C) The correlation between the Ptcco₂ values and the Paco₂ values obtained from mice that received fentanyl (1.0 mg/kg) were within the 95% confidence interval of Experiment 2 regression analysis curve.

	DISCUSSION

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A variety of factors influence Ptcco₂ measurements, including probe temperature, skin thickness, presence of hair, and the anesthetic drug used (9). The effect of a heated probe on the skin is to increase metabolism of the epidermal cells (increase in Paco₂) and increase capillary blood flow as a result of vasodilatation (decrease in Paco₂) (10). As the living layer of skin depends partly on the outside dead layer for CO₂ excretion, the skin thickness inversely affects CO₂ diffusion but to a much lesser extent than O₂ diffusion, because of O₂ being 16 times less liposoluble (11). In rats, a probe temperature of 44°C was reported to produce the highest correlation between Paco₂ and Ptcco₂ (r² = 0.924) (4). However, the authors of that study chose a probe temperature of 42°C, despite a lower correlation coefficient (r² = 0.812), to avoid the possibility of thermal burns in juvenile animals. In the present study, using adult mice, a probe temperature of 44°C and an average probe contact time of 100 min produced only superficial indurations on the abdomen, resolving within 5 days. The ventral abdominal skin was chosen as it is thin and provides a flat surface for attachment of the probe, an important consideration given the limitations of working with a small animal. Hair removal was essential to provide a direct surface contact with the probe. Hair clipping was chosen over depilatory agents as the latter produces inflammation and alters Ptcco₂ measurements (4). It has been reported that gentle application of Scotch tape removes the stratum corneum and increases the accuracy of measurements, especially in regards to transcutaneous O₂ readings (12). However, we found that this method did not produce superior Ptcco₂ readings in the initial experiments and was therefore discontinued.

The ventilatory depressant and hypotensive effects of the anesthetic isoflurane are dose dependant and are well documented (13,14). As suggested previously, the anesthesia stabilization and adaptation time required to reach a stable baseline was incorporated into our experimental design (4). Transcutaneous probe readings were used to assure that a stable baseline had been achieved before conducting experiments. It was determined that in the short duration of the present experiments there was only a modest increase in Ptcco₂ using 1.0% isoflurane (20 min: mean increase was 0.49 ± 2.74; 60 min: mean increase was 8.50 ± 6.71 mm Hg).

Two separate approaches were used to induce ventilatory depression. The first was responsiveness to inhaled CO₂, a well documented and sensitive test used in the study of ventilatory depression (15,16). The observed increase in Ptcco₂ resulting from an increase in the fraction of inspired CO₂ is a reliable measure of ventilatory response (17). This method is based on the physiological principal that the change in alveolar ventilation from one steady-state level to another is inversely proportional to the change in Paco₂ and consequently Ptcco₂. We used this principal by adding known percentages of inspired CO₂ to the anesthetic mixture in Experiment 2 to assess the reliability of Ptcco₂ monitoring in mice. Subsequently, we were able to validate the proportional relationship between Ptcco₂ and Paco₂ values in mice. The second approach used to elicit ventilatory depression was through drug induction. Paco₂ and Ptcco₂ values were measured in mice that had received 1 mg/kg fentanyl, an opioid that has been well documented for its ability to induce ventilatory depression. The resulting values were within the 95% confidence interval of the correlation plot generated in Experiment 2 (data not shown).

In the current set of experiments, the Ptcco₂ values in mice were higher than the corresponding Paco₂ values, similar to what has been observed in humans, rats, lambs, pigs, and cats (5,10). Correlating the values derived from the Ptcco₂ method with values from the Paco₂ method required the application of the following conversion calculation: Ptcco₂ = [Constant Factor x Paco₂] + adjustment factor (9). In humans, the constant factor was determined to be 1.61 with an adjustment factor of –0.01 for neonates (probe temperature 44°C) and 1.31 with an adjustment factor of 5.40 for adults (probe temperature 43°C) (5). In adult humans, the adjustment factor typically is within the range of 2–8 mm Hg, representing the local production of CO₂ by skin, which is influenced by metabolism, age, and skin thickness. These factors remain constant throughout the Ptcco₂ monitoring period, thereby producing consistent Ptcco₂ measurements. The local skin production of CO₂ is further stabilized by maintaining a constant probe temperature. Likewise, the correlation between Paco₂ and Ptcco₂ values in rats was reported to be Ptcco₂ = [1.71 x Paco₂] + 9.83 (4). The correlation equation in the present mouse study was determined to be Ptcco₂ = [1.68 x Paco₂] + 4.12, after temperature correction.

Fentanyl, which is used extensively in the clinical setting for the control of acute and chronic pain (18–20), was chosen as a model drug because of its well characterized ventilatory depressive effects (21,22). As fentanyl produces modest hyperthermia at the doses used in our experiments (23), we kept this variable constant by maintaining the mice at ambient body temperature of 36.5°C–37.5°C using a heating pad. Single bolus injections used in the present study mimic conditions in which fentanyl is typically administered for short-term supplementation to general anesthesia. All three doses of fentanyl (0.3, 0.5, 1.0 mg/kg) elicited a peak increase in Ptcco₂ amplitude within 20 minutes postinjection. The 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg dose elicited a similar increase in Ptcco₂ peak amplitude, which was more robust than the 0.3 mg/kg dose (Fig. 2). Similarities in the peak response and slopes of the 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg dose, support the occurrence of a ligand-specific plateau phenomenon in regards to the maximal plasma concentration of fentanyl in mice (22).

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that, under controlled conditions, Ptcco₂ measurements in mice are reproducible and correlate well with Paco₂ values. Moreover, a Bland-Altman analysis further demonstrated the reliability and accuracy of the Ptcco₂ measurements in comparison to Paco₂ measurements. These findings favorably support the use of this relatively simple, noninvasive method for reliably assessing ventilatory depression in a mammal as small as a mouse, thereby eliminating the need for specialized surgical skills. Considering the extensive number of mouse models that have been generated by gene manipulation techniques, an easily applied method for assessing ventilatory depression under a variety of conditions in any number of mouse models is of significant value. Moreover, these methods are easily applied to assessing the potential ventilatory depressive effects of a wide spectrum of clinically proven and experimental agents. Future investigations will use this Ptcco₂ method for correlating the ventilatory depressive properties of a number of opioid compounds with their respective influence on in vitro activation profiles relative to the µ, , and opioid receptors (24,25). Such detailed assessments will provide the basis for rational structure-based design approaches aimed at developing the next generation of opioid receptor ligands that have adequate analgesic properties while lacking ventilatory depressive side effects (26–28).

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
We thank Dr. Frances Davies and Dr. Steven L. Shafer for valuable discussions throughout the course of this work.

	Footnotes

 
Accepted for publication May 16, 2006.

Supported, in part, by National Institutes of Health grant R01DA12539.

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This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) An erratum has been published Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Email this article to a colleague Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Web of Science (2) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Sahbaie, P. Articles by Delorey, T. M. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Sahbaie, P. Articles by Delorey, T. M. Related Collections Monitoring (Non-cardiac) Pharmacology