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Departments of Anesthesiology and Radiology, University of Mississippi School of Medicine, Jackson
Address correspondence and reprint requests to George Mychaskiw II, DO, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Mississippi School of Medicine, 2500 North State St., Jackson, Mississippi 39216-4505. Address e-mail to Gmychaskiw{at}anesthesia.umsmed.edu
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Abstract |
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IMPLICATIONS: Radiofrequency ablation is a new investigational therapy for primary and secondary neoplasms. In this article, the authors describe the anesthetic management of the radiofrequency ablation of a pulmonary neoplasm complicated by massive hemorrhage.
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Introduction |
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Case Report |
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At the time of admission, the patient related a history of easy bruising. Physical examination was unremarkable. Chest radiogram was significant for a midleft lung mass and an upper right lung mass. Laboratory findings included a hematocrit of 45%, platelet count of 289,000, a partial thromboplastin time of 33.2 s, and a prothrombin time of 11.7 s. No studies of platelet function were performed.
On the day of the procedure, the patient underwent an uneventful induction of anesthesia with sodium thiopental 4 mg/kg, fentanyl 1.8 µg/kg, and vecuronium 0.1 mg/kg. His trachea was intubated with an 8.0-mm endotracheal tube without difficulty. Anesthesia was maintained with desflurane 3%–4%, 100% oxygen, and 50 µg of fentanyl boluses. The patient remained stable during positioning and initial computed tomography (CT) scanning.
Approximately 2 h after the radiofrequency ablation began, the patient suddenly had a decrease in arterial oxygen saturation to 84% followed by hypotension with a decrease of systolic blood pressure to 79 mm Hg. The blood pressure was restored to 150 mm Hg with 2 boluses of phenylephrine, 100 µg each, and a 400-mL bolus of lactated Ringer’s solution, positive end-expiratory pressure of 10 cm, was applied and ventilation controlled. Despite these measurements, it took 5 min to restore the arterial oxygen saturation to 97%.
A CT scan performed at the anesthesiologist’s suggestion revealed extensive hemorrhage into the right lung and right pleural cavity (Fig. 1). The patient was transferred from the CT scanner to angiography so that emergency pulmonary and bronchial arteriograms could be performed. The right internal jugular vein was cannulated, and a blood sample was sent for type and cross-match. A fiberoptic examination through the existing endotracheal tube revealed blood at the carina, and a 39F double lumen endobronchial tube was placed to isolate the lungs.
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The patient remained intubated and mechanically ventilated for several days after surgery because of difficulties with oxygenation. During the first postoperative day, his hematocrit decreased from a preoperative value of 45% to 31%. Platelets were not transfused, and the patient had no further hemorrhage. On postoperative Day 8, while still intubated, the patient had a non-Q wave myocardial infarction. He was finally extubated on postoperative Day 11. Eight days later, he suffered an episode of pulmonary aspiration, which eventually led to his death on postoperative Day 23.
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Discussion |
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The energy for radiofrequency ablation is produced by a generator and is introduced into the tumor through a probe placed under CT or ultrasound guidance. The energy emerges at the tip of the probe via an array of tines and is introduced as alternating current. Ions present in tissue molecules oscillate in response to the alternating current because of their polarity. This ionic oscillation results in frictional heat, which leads to coagulation necrosis and protein/enzyme dysfunction. The position of the probe is repeatedly changed until the entire bulk of the tumor has been heated. At each probe location, the power of the energy administered is increased by increments until a critical temperature sufficient to cause tissue destruction is reached (80°C). The presence of a pacemaker is an absolute contraindication. The presence of metallic implants is a relative contraindication, depending on their proximity to the procedure site.
This case involved radiofrequency ablation of a lung tumor and demonstrated one of the known complications of the procedure, which is hemorrhage. Other complications of radiofrequency ablation of pulmonary lesions include pneumothorax (20% incidence), infection (<1%), and bronchopleural fistula formation (<1%) (Sewell P., Department of Radiology, University of Mississippi School of Medicine, personal communication, November 2001). Hemorrhage occurs infrequently (<1%), is usually mild, and is of little clinical significance. However, the patient in this case was taking clopidogrel, a potent platelet inhibitor.
Clopidogrel selectively inhibits the binding of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to its platelet receptor, thereby inhibiting platelet aggregation. It irreversibly modifies the platelet ADP receptor. Consequently, platelets exposed to clopidogrel are affected for the remainder of their life span. Inhibition of platelet aggregation can be seen two hours after a single oral dose (Manufacturer’s Package Insert, Sanofi-Synthelabo Inc, New York). At steady state, the average inhibition level is between 40% and 60%. After treatment is discontinued, platelet aggregation gradually returns to baseline values usually in about five days. The package insert states that if a patient is to undergo elective surgery, and an antiplatelet effect is not desired, clopidogrel should be discontinued seven days before surgery. In urgent or emergent situations, platelet transfusion can ameliorate clopidogrel’s antiplatelet effects. The amount of platelets transfused to achieve adequate hemostasis is variable and can be guided by platelet function testing.
In retrospect, given the elective nature of the case, we should have postponed the procedure and discontinued the clopidogrel until platelet function normalized. Considering the infrequency of hemorrhage as a complication and its generally limited nature, many surgeons would elect to proceed, regardless. However, the clinical experience with patients on clopidogrel undergoing radiofrequency ablation is very limited because the procedure itself is new and relatively uncommon, used in only a few centers nationwide. Thus, it seems prudent to discontinue clopidogrel for about a week and evaluate platelet function before proceeding with radiofrequency ablation therapy.
Historically, bleeding time has been measured in patients with platelet dysfunction in an attempt to predict the possibility of surgical bleeding. However, bleeding time has not proven to be a consistently reliable predictor (2). A new device, the PFA-100 (Sysmex UK Ltd, Buckinghamshire, Great Britain), is now available to assist in the evaluation of platelet function. The PFA-100 is designed to measure platelet-related primary hemostasis. It is able to detect qualitative platelet defects, including drug-induced platelet dysfunction. The instrument uses two disposable cartridges: a collagen/epinephrine and a collagen/ADP cartridge. Citrated whole blood is aspirated through a capillary into an aperture, the surface of which is coated with collagen to which ADP or epinephrine is added. Platelets adhere, undergo a release reaction, aggregate, and occlude the aperture by a primary hemostatic plug. The closure time that is required for blood to occlude the aperture is measured. The differences in the closure times for the two cartridges allows for differentiation to be made among congenital thrombocytopathy, von Willebrand disease, and drug-induced platelet dysfunction. The sensitivity and specificity of the PFA-100 are 94.9% and 88.8%, respectively (3). These values compare favorably with the sensitivity and specificity of the more labor-intensive platelet aggregometry (94.3% and 88.3%, respectively) (3). In addition, results can be obtained with the PFA-100 in 30 minutes rather than the 3 hours required for platelet aggregometry. This test is especially sensitive and useful in the evaluation of pharmacological derangement of platelet function seen with clopidogrel. The computerized Thrombelastograph coagulation analyzer (TEG®; Haemoscope Co, Skokie, IL) is used in some institutions. It detects and records the kinetic changes in a sample of whole blood as the clot forms, retracts, or lyses. The resultant coagulation profile is therefore a measure of clot kinetics (formation and dissolution) and of clot quality (the ability to perform the work of hemostasis). The TEG® coagulation analyzer is a global test of hemostatic dysfunction and is not a specific test for platelet dysfunction (4–6). Although it can detect platelet dysfunction after antiplatelet drug therapy, the TEG® coagulation analyzer is less sensitive than the PFA-100 for this purpose.
Radiofrequency ablation is a new approach to the treatment of pulmonary neoplasms. Although the incidence of complications is small, the presentation may be dramatic, as in this case. We would recommend that patients undergoing this procedure have a large-bore IV cannula, an arterial cannula, and a current type/screen. In addition, there should be heightened awareness of any potential for coagulopathy. Most of these patients have received chemotherapy with possible bone marrow suppression and thrombocytopenia. In addition, many of these patients are elderly or are chronic tobacco users with an increased incidence of peripheral vascular disease. A careful medication history should be taken to determine whether any medications have been prescribed that might adversely affect hemostasis, and an appropriate preoperative evaluation should be performed. Finally, as pneumothorax is the most prevalent complication of the procedure, personnel involved in these cases should be vigilant for the occurrence of pneumothorax and prepared to treat it if required.
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E. vanSonnenberg, S. Shankar, P. R. Morrison, R. T. Nair, S. G. Silverman, M. T. Jaklitsch, F. Liu, L. Cheung, K. Tuncali, A. T. Skarin, et al. Radiofrequency Ablation of Thoracic Lesions: Part 2, Initial Clinical Experience--Technical and Multidisciplinary Considerations in 30 Patients Am. J. Roentgenol., February 1, 2005; 184(2): 381 - 390. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Gadaleta, V. Mattioli, G. Colucci, A. Cramarossa, V. Lorusso, E. Canniello, A. Timurian, G. Ranieri, G. Fiorentini, M. De Lena, et al. Radiofrequency Ablation of 40 Lung Neoplasms: Preliminary Results Am. J. Roentgenol., August 1, 2004; 183(2): 361 - 368. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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